How to Write A-Grade Economics Essays: Mastering AO4 Evaluation and the 4Es Framework
Introduction: The Essay Writing Skill Most JC Students Never Learn
Here's an uncomfortable truth from Eugene Toh, founder of ETG Economics: "I first learned how to write an essay after A-Levels had ended."
During his first university tutorial at NUS—a Politics 101 class, not even an Economics module—the professor opened with a revelation: "Today we're not teaching politics. We're teaching essay writing, because it's clear from your submissions that most students entering university have no idea how to write a proper essay."
This wasn't an indictment of student intelligence. It was an observation about educational priorities: JC teachers focus intensely on content, but rarely dedicate lessons to the actual mechanics of essay construction.
ETG Economics, a specialized A-Level and IB Economics tuition centre in Singapore founded by Eugene Toh in 2007, has spent 18 years addressing this gap. Eugene Toh (NUS B.A. Economics, SMU M.Sc. Applied Economics, author of the H1/H2 TYS answer keys published by SAP) developed systematic frameworks that transform how students approach H2 Economics essays—frameworks that contributed to ETG's 70.3% A rate in 2024.
The reality: 84% of your H2 Economics grade (syllabus 9570) comes from essay-based questions. Yet most students have never been explicitly taught essay structure. They're expected to absorb it osmically while focusing on market failure theories and macroeconomic concepts.
This guide breaks down the exact essay writing system ETG students use—the frameworks that ensure every essay has proper structure, incorporates evaluation naturally, and demonstrates the Assessment Objective 4 (AO4) skills that separate A-grade essays from B-grade ones.
Understanding Essay Structure: It's Not Actually About Economics
Before diving into Economics-specific techniques, let's address a fundamental truth: essay writing is a transferable skill that transcends Economics.
The structure principles you learn here apply equally to:
General Paper essays
History essays
Literature essays
Any university humanities subject
Eugene Toh's university story illustrates this. Despite rarely attending NUS lectures (he was running two businesses during his undergraduate years), he aced every Economics exam. His secret? He approached exams as a student of systems rather than just content. When he finally attended lectures for his Master's degree at SMU, walking out first from every exam, his advantage wasn't deeper content knowledge—it was superior essay technique.
The fundamental insight: Essay writing has a grammar, just like language has grammar. Once you understand the grammar of essays, you can construct them systematically regardless of subject matter.
For H2 Economics specifically, this means:
Content knowledge is necessary but insufficient (you need to know demand and supply)
Essay technique is the multiplier (you need to know how to deploy that knowledge effectively)
Evaluation separates grades (AO4 skills determine whether content knowledge translates to an A or B)
Students at ETG Economics learn this distinction early: you're not just studying Economics—you're studying how to write about Economics in exam conditions.
Explore ETG's systematic approach to essay mastery
The MDI Breakdown Method: Planning Before Writing
Most students make a fatal error: they read the question and immediately start writing. No planning, no structure—just a brain dump of everything they know about the topic.
Eugene Toh's principle: "Don't write the essay in your head. Write the essay the examiner wants to read."
The MDI Framework
Before writing a single word, systematically analyze the question using MDI: Marks, Definition, Identification, Theory, Requirements.
M - Marks (Determining Length and Points)
The baseline rule:
Every 10 marks = 1 page minimum (excluding diagrams)
Maximum length = 1.25 to 1.5 pages (25-50% more than minimum)
For normal-sized handwriting. If your handwriting is unusually large or small, adjust accordingly by comparing with classmates.
What this means practically:
Question marks
Minimum length
Maximum length
Key points
10 marks
1 page
1.25-1.5 pages
2-3 points
15 marks
1.5 pages
1.75-2.25 pages
3-4 points
25 marks
2.5 pages
3-3.75 pages
3-5 points
Critical: Diagrams are separate. Treat diagrams like dessert—a separate stomach. Don't include diagram space in your page count.
Why this matters: If you write 3 pages for a 10-mark question, you're over-explaining (wasting time). If you write 0.75 pages, you're under-developing your answer. Both cost marks.
D - Definition (Showing Understanding)
Two reasons to define terms:
1. Demonstrate knowledge of key economic concepts
Define terms explicitly mentioned in the question
Define the underlying concept being tested (even if not explicitly mentioned)
Example: Question asks about "carbon emissions from cars" but doesn't mention "negative externality"—you still define negative externality because that's the concept being tested.
2. Narrow down scope when questions are too broad
Example of scope-narrowing:
Question: "Explain the impact of GST increase on consumer expenditure on goods and services in Singapore."
This is impossibly broad. "All goods and services" includes your iPhone, your Mountain Dew, your MRT fare, your textbooks—everything.
Strategic definition:
"For the purpose of this analysis, I will examine two categories of goods and services: (1) goods with highly price inelastic demand, such as essential groceries and utilities, where PED < 1, and (2) goods with relatively price elastic demand, such as luxury electronics and dining, where PED > 1."
You've now given yourself a manageable scope to analyze rather than trying to discuss literally everything.
I - Identification (Know What You're Discussing)
Before writing, list out:
For Part A questions: What are the 2-3 key factors/events mentioned in the preamble?
For Part B questions: What are the 2-3 policies you'll discuss? (Usually one is mentioned; you choose the second)
Example from actual A-Level question: Preamble mentions: (1) Income tax reduction, (2) Population increase, (3) Trade negotiations
Your identification: "I will discuss three factors affecting demand for goods in Singapore: changes in disposable income from tax policy, demographic shifts from population growth, and price changes of related goods from international trade."
Common mistake: Students see a policy question, latch onto the one mentioned policy, and discuss only that policy extensively. But the question asks you to compare/contrast. You need to identify a second policy that provides meaningful contrast.
T - Theory (What Concept Is Actually Being Tested?)
Critical insight: A-Level questions aren't random. Every question tests one (or more) of approximately 75 core concepts from the syllabus.
The examiner has a specific theoretical concept in mind. Your job: identify it and demonstrate mastery.
Example analysis:
Question: "Discuss whether firms can increase the price of all products by the full amount of the Goods and Services Tax increase."
What most students study: Demand price elastic diagram and demand price inelastic diagram with supply shifting left.
What the question actually tests: Perfectly price inelastic demand (vertical demand curve)—a concept most students never practice because it seems obscure.
The trap: Students answer the question in their head (the PED elastic vs. inelastic question they've practiced) rather than the question on the paper (the perfectly inelastic vs. not perfectly inelastic question).
Eugene Toh's warning, repeated constantly in the final month before A-Levels: "Answer the question on the paper, not the question in your head."
R - Requirements (Single vs. Plural, Perspective Matters)
Pay attention to:
1. Singular vs. plural
"Using a diagram" vs. "Using diagrams"
Usually more relevant for CSQ questions, but occasionally appears in essays
2. Perspective changes the answer
"Is oligopoly good for consumers?" ≠ "Is oligopoly good for society?"
Consumers care about: price, choice, quality, variety
Society also cares about: deadweight loss, allocative efficiency, dynamic efficiency
3. The subject must remain the focus
If the question tests monetary policy, your monetary policy discussion cannot be shorter than your proposed alternative fiscal policy discussion
The subject of the question must receive the most attention
MDI breakdown ensures you plan systematically before writing—filtering your knowledge (tap water) into a structured answer (purified water) rather than dumping everything you know onto the page.
The SALAD Introduction Framework
Introductions serve as GPS for your essay—they tell the examiner exactly where you're going and how you'll get there.
SALAD = Stand, Address & Answer, List factors, Define terms
S - State Your Stand
From the very first sentence, tell the examiner your position.
For "Discuss whether" questions:
"Yes, road pricing is the most appropriate policy to address traffic congestion in Singapore, provided it is implemented alongside public transport improvements."
"No, free direct provision is not the best policy for healthcare, as it creates overconsumption and fiscal unsustainability."
"Partially yes—the effectiveness depends on the elasticity of demand and availability of substitutes."
Even if you're sitting on the fence, state that explicitly:
"Whether minimum wage is effective depends critically on the magnitude of the wage floor relative to market equilibrium and the elasticity of labor demand."
Why this matters: Examiners read dozens of essays. Clear signposting makes your essay easier to follow, which influences level-based marking (the difference between getting 19/25 vs. 21/25 when both are in the same "level").
A - Address and Answer the Question
Respond directly to what's being asked in 1-2 sentences. Save elaboration for body paragraphs.
Question: "Explain why the market fails in the case of carbon emissions from cars."
Address & Answer: "The market fails because carbon emissions generate negative externalities—external costs borne by third parties (society) that are not reflected in the private cost of car usage. This results in overproduction and overconsumption of car travel relative to the socially optimal level."
That's it. Two sentences. You've answered the question. Now you'll elaborate in the body.
Question: "Assess whether fiscal policy or monetary policy is more appropriate for addressing a recession in Singapore."
Address & Answer: "Fiscal policy is more appropriate for Singapore's context due to the limitations of Singapore's exchange rate-centered monetary policy and the government's strong fiscal position, which enables targeted demand-side intervention with minimal debt concerns."
One sentence answer. Body paragraphs will develop this.
L - List Factors or Policies
Tell the examiner what you'll discuss and in what order.
For factor-based questions (Part A): "This essay will examine three categories of goods affected by income tax reduction: inferior goods (negative YED), necessities (0 < YED < 1), and luxury goods (YED > 1)."
For policy-based questions (Part B): "This essay will first evaluate road pricing as a market-based solution, then compare it with supply-side policies such as expanding public transport infrastructure, before assessing the complementary use of both approaches."
Why this matters: Examiners can now follow your structure. They know what's coming and can track whether you deliver on what you promise.
D - Define Key Terms
We covered this in MDI, but to reiterate: define terms explicitly mentioned AND the underlying concept being tested.
Exemplar Introduction (Complete):
Question: "Discuss whether free direct provision is the best policy to address market failure in healthcare."
SALAD Introduction:
Free direct provision is not the best policy to address healthcare market failure, as it creates fiscal burden and overconsumption issues that offset its benefits in addressing positive externalities (S - Stand). While free provision can eliminate the underconsumption problem arising from positive externalities by shifting supply to where price equals zero, it simultaneously creates a new problem of overconsumption beyond the socially optimal quantity (A - Address & Answer). This essay will evaluate free direct provision by examining its effectiveness in correcting positive externalities, then compare it with alternative policies such as subsidies and compulsory health insurance schemes (L - List factors). Healthcare exhibits positive externalities when private benefits to consumers are less than social benefits, leading to underconsumption at market equilibrium; free direct provision refers to government-funded healthcare services provided at zero cost to consumers (D - Define).
Length: 4-5 sentences for a 15-mark question. Approximately 150 words.
Learn how ETG teaches systematic essay construction
The 4Es Framework: Constructing Body Paragraphs
Every body paragraph addressing a key point should follow the 4Es: Explain, Elaborate, Examples, Evaluate.
(For 10-mark questions without evaluation requirements, use 3Es—drop Evaluate.)
The Topic Sentence (Before the 4Es)
First sentence of every paragraph should summarize the key point you're making.
Example: "Free direct provision can help address the underconsumption problem arising from positive externalities in healthcare."
Why this matters: Economics uses level-based marking (not point-based marking like Math). The examiner's subjective reading experience influences your mark within a level band. Clear topic sentences make your essay easier to follow → better reading experience → higher marks within the band.
If the examiner has to work hard to figure out what you're saying, you'll get the bottom of the mark range. If your argument flows naturally with clear signposts, you'll get the top of the range.
E1 - Explain (The Factor or Policy Without Economics)
Describe what's happening in plain language, without bringing in economic concepts yet.
Example for free direct provision: "Free direct provision means the government provides healthcare services—such as hospital treatments, GP visits, and medications—at zero cost to consumers. The government funds these services through tax revenue rather than charging users at the point of consumption."
Purpose: Establish what you're talking about clearly before introducing economic analysis.
E2 - Elaborate (Bring in Economic Concepts and Frameworks)
Now deploy your economic tools—diagrams, concepts, analytical frameworks.
Continuing the example: "By providing healthcare for free, the government effectively increases supply in the healthcare market. Using a positive externality diagram, we can analyze this intervention: the market produces at Qm where PMB = PMC, but the socially optimal output is Qs where SMB = SMC. Free provision shifts the supply curve rightward until it intersects the demand curve at the point where price equals zero. If this shift is calibrated correctly, output will increase to Qs, eliminating the underconsumption (welfare loss triangle) that existed at market equilibrium."
Purpose: Demonstrate command of economic theory and analytical tools (AO2 skills).
E3 - Examples (Contextualize with Real-World Application)
Abstract theory means little to examiners. Singapore-specific examples demonstrate both content knowledge and contextual understanding.
Continuing the example: "Singapore's healthcare system illustrates a modified version of this approach. While Singapore doesn't offer completely free healthcare, heavily subsidized public healthcare through polyclinics and restructured hospitals functions similarly. Polyclinic consultation fees are SGD 15-20 for subsidized patients (about 70-80% subsidy), making essential healthcare highly accessible. This contrasts with the UK's National Health Service, which provides free-at-point-of-use healthcare. The UK's approach has resulted in overconsumption problems—emergency services are overtaxed, doctors are overworked, and waiting times for non-urgent procedures can exceed 12-18 months, demonstrating the unintended consequences of zero pricing."
Singapore examples that demonstrate sophisticated knowledge:
CPF Medisave system (compulsory health savings)
MediShield Life (universal basic health insurance)
Community Health Assist Scheme (CHAS) subsidies for lower-income groups
Means-tested subsidies in public hospitals (Class B2/C wards)
ElderShield/CareShield Life (long-term care insurance)
Purpose: Show you understand how theory applies to actual policy, particularly Singapore policy (which examiners favor).
E4 - Evaluate (AO4 - The A-Grade Differentiator)
Evaluation demonstrates higher-order thinking. This is where As are won or lost.
Continuing the example: "However, the effectiveness of free provision depends critically on the government's ability to accurately determine the socially optimal quantity Qs. If the government overestimates the positive externality and shifts supply too far rightward, output will exceed Qs, creating a new welfare problem—overconsumption. In the UK's NHS, this manifests as patients visiting emergency rooms for minor ailments that could be self-treated, consuming scarce medical resources. The zero price eliminates the rationing function of prices, removing the signal that helps allocate resources efficiently. Singapore's partial subsidy approach mitigates this—the nominal fee of SGD 15-20 is low enough to ensure access but high enough to discourage frivolous consumption."
Purpose: Demonstrate AO4 skills—recognizing limitations, considering trade-offs, assessing contextual factors that determine effectiveness.
Where to Place Evaluation: Mini vs. Summative
Common student question: "Should I evaluate after every point or only at the end?"
Answer: Both—but they serve different purposes.
Mini-Evaluation (End of Each Point)
After explaining each factor or policy, include a brief evaluation addressing its limitations or contextual dependencies.
Example after discussing road pricing: "While road pricing generates government revenue and reduces congestion, its effectiveness is limited in Singapore's context. Road pricing (ERP charges of SGD 0.50-6.00 depending on location and time) forms a very small proportion of total car ownership costs in Singapore. Given that COE (Certificate of Entitlement) costs can exceed SGD 100,000 and annual road tax is SGD 1,000-2,000+, the marginal effect of ERP charges on driving decisions may be minimal for most car owners. This suggests road pricing alone may not significantly alter behavior."
Length: 2-3 sentences. Just enough to show you recognize limitations without derailing your essay flow.
Summative Evaluation (Conclusion)
At the end of your essay, provide overarching evaluation that considers the big picture.
Example continuing from the road pricing mini-evaluation above: "While the mini-evaluation highlighted that road pricing forms a small part of total driving costs, the conclusion can reconcile this: The objective of road pricing is not to eliminate car usage entirely but to discourage non-essential traffic during peak hours. A 10% reduction in vehicles during peak periods can significantly improve traffic flow without preventing people from driving when necessary. The modest price signal targets marginal users—those who have viable alternatives (like taking public transport or traveling off-peak)—rather than those with inelastic demand (like workers who must drive to industrial areas with poor public transport). Combined with extensive MRT expansion (Thomson-East Coast Line, Cross Island Line), road pricing functions as part of an integrated transport policy rather than a standalone solution. From this perspective, its 'small' impact relative to total car costs is actually optimal design—strong enough to influence behavior at the margins without creating excessive burden."
Difference: The mini-evaluation acknowledged a limitation. The summative evaluation contextualized that limitation within broader policy objectives, showing nuanced understanding.
How This Relates to the 5-Mark Evaluation Component
Critical understanding: There's no such thing as "3 marks for conclusion evaluation + 2 marks for mini evaluations."
Your evaluation is marked holistically out of 5 marks based on the sum total of all evaluative content throughout the essay. You could:
Have strong mini-evaluations and a weak conclusion → still get 4-5/5
Have no mini-evaluations but an exceptionally strong conclusion → still get 4-5/5
Have both → definitely get 4-5/5
What examiners look for in evaluation:
Recognition of limitations and trade-offs
Contextual considerations (short-run vs. long-run, Singapore-specific factors)
Multiple perspectives (consumers vs. producers vs. society)
Acknowledgment of assumptions and their implications
Comparative assessment (why Policy A > Policy B in this context)
Master evaluation techniques through ETG's guided practice
AO4 Evaluation Techniques: What Actually Scores Marks
Assessment Objective 4 (AO4) tests your ability to evaluate economic arguments and policies. Here are the evaluation dimensions that consistently score marks:
1. Effectiveness Assessment
Question to ask: Will this policy actually solve the stated problem? Under what conditions might it fail?
Example - ERP evaluation: "ERP effectively reduces congestion during peak hours, but its effectiveness depends on viable alternatives. In areas with extensive MRT coverage (like the CBD), ERP works well because commuters can substitute to public transport. However, in industrial estates like Tuas or Woodlands, where public transport is limited, ERP may be less effective as workers have inelastic demand—they must drive regardless of charges. This explains why ERP gantries concentrate on central areas rather than all roads."
2. Efficiency Considerations
Question to ask: Does this achieve goals with minimal resource waste? What are the opportunity costs?
Example - Building more roads: "While constructing additional roads directly addresses congestion by increasing road capacity, this approach is highly inefficient in land-scarce Singapore. The opportunity cost of land used for roads is substantial—a 2-lane road spanning 1 km might occupy land that could house 2,000 residential units. Given Singapore's land constraints (720 km² total area with 13% allocated to transport infrastructure), using scarce land for roads when public transport alternatives exist represents inefficient resource allocation."
3. Equity Implications
Question to ask: Who benefits? Who bears costs? Are there distributional concerns?
Example - Carbon tax: "Carbon taxes are inherently regressive—low-income households spend a larger proportion of income on utilities affected by carbon pricing. A SGD 5-per-tonne carbon tax might add SGD 20-30 monthly to a low-income household's electricity bill (2-3% of income) compared to SGD 20-30 for a high-income household (0.2-0.3% of income). Singapore addresses this through progressive redistribution: carbon tax revenue partly funds GST Vouchers and U-Save rebates that disproportionately benefit lower-income households, offsetting the regressive impact while maintaining the environmental price signal."
4. Time Lags (Short-run vs. Long-run)
Question to ask: How quickly does the policy work? Do short-run and long-run effects differ?
Example - SkillsFuture: "Supply-side policies like SkillsFuture training improve productivity in the long run (5-10 years) as workers develop new skills and adopt advanced technologies, shifting LRAS rightward. However, these policies provide minimal relief for immediate economic challenges. During the 2020 COVID recession, Singapore deployed SGD 100 billion in fiscal stimulus (demand-side) rather than relying on supply-side policies, because the economy needed immediate demand support, not long-run productivity improvements. Supply-side policies are investments for sustained growth, not crisis management tools."
5. Government Failure Considerations
Question to ask: What implementation challenges exist? Can the government access necessary information?
Example - Minimum wage: "Minimum wage implementation faces significant information asymmetry problems. Authorities lack perfect knowledge of each industry's ability to absorb wage costs. A SGD 1,400 monthly minimum wage might have negligible employment effects in high-productivity sectors like finance but could cause substantial job losses in labor-intensive sectors like F&B and retail. Singapore's Progressive Wage Model (PWM) addresses this by setting sector-specific wage floors based on skills and productivity levels, recognizing that one-size-fits-all policies ignore sectoral heterogeneity."
6. Assumptions and Caveats
Question to ask: What assumptions underlie this analysis? What happens if they don't hold?
Example - Subsidy for positive externalities: "The analysis assumes the government can accurately measure the size of the positive externality (the vertical distance between PMB and SMB) to determine the appropriate subsidy level. However, quantifying education's positive externalities—increased civic participation, lower crime rates, innovation spillovers—is inherently difficult. If the government overestimates and provides excessive subsidies, it creates overconsumption and fiscal waste. If it underestimates, underconsumption persists. Singapore's approach of heavily subsidizing basic education (6 years primary + 4-5 years secondary) while charging higher fees for university suggests policymakers believe positive externalities are larger for foundational education than tertiary education."
The common thread: A-grade evaluation doesn't just state "there are limitations" vaguely. It identifies specific limitations, explains why they matter, and often provides real-world evidence (like Singapore policy design) that shows policymakers recognize these issues.
Complete Exemplar Essay: Breaking Down Every Component
Question (15 marks): "Discuss whether free direct provision is the best policy to address market failure in healthcare."
SALAD INTRODUCTION:
Free direct provision is not the best policy to address healthcare market failure, as it creates fiscal burden and overconsumption issues that offset its benefits in addressing positive externalities (S - Stand). While free provision can eliminate the underconsumption problem arising from positive externalities by shifting supply to where price equals zero, it simultaneously creates overconsumption beyond the socially optimal quantity (A - Address). This essay will first evaluate free direct provision by examining its effectiveness in correcting positive externalities, then compare it with alternative policies such as subsidies and compulsory health insurance schemes (L - List). Healthcare exhibits positive externalities when private benefits to consumers (e.g., personal health improvements) are less than social benefits (e.g., reduced disease transmission, healthier workforce), leading to underconsumption at market equilibrium. Free direct provision refers to government-funded healthcare services provided at zero cost to consumers at the point of consumption (D - Define).
BODY PARAGRAPH 1 (Supporting free provision):
[Topic sentence] Free direct provision can effectively address the underconsumption problem arising from positive externalities in healthcare. [E1 - Explain] Under free provision, the government provides healthcare services—consultations, treatments, medications—funded through tax revenue rather than charging users. [E2 - Elaborate] Using a positive externality diagram, the market produces at Qm where PMB = PMC, but the socially optimal output is Qs where SMB = SMC, creating a welfare loss. Free provision shifts the supply curve rightward until price equals zero, potentially increasing output to Qs and eliminating underconsumption. [E3 - Examples] The UK's National Health Service exemplifies this approach—comprehensive healthcare is free at the point of use, funded through taxation. This ensures universal access regardless of ability to pay, addressing equity concerns alongside efficiency. Singapore's approach differs: heavily subsidized (70-80%) public healthcare through polyclinics (SGD 15-20 per consultation) and Class B2/C hospital wards provides affordable access while maintaining nominal fees. [E4 - Evaluate - Mini] However, free provision's effectiveness depends on accurately determining the socially optimal quantity. If supply shifts too far, output exceeds Qs, creating overconsumption. UK's NHS demonstrates this—emergency rooms are overtaxed with patients seeking treatment for minor ailments better handled through self-care, wasting scarce medical resources and creating 12-18 month waiting times for non-urgent procedures.
BODY PARAGRAPH 2 (Opposing free provision - Alternative policy):
[Topic sentence] Subsidies combined with compulsory health insurance offer a more efficient alternative that addresses positive externalities while mitigating overconsumption problems. [E1 - Explain] Rather than eliminating price entirely, subsidies reduce healthcare costs by a specific amount (e.g., 70% subsidy), while compulsory insurance ensures universal coverage through risk pooling. [E2 - Elaborate] Subsidies shift the supply curve rightward (or demand curve rightward if framed as consumer subsidy) but maintain positive prices that preserve some rationing function. The subsidy magnitude can be calibrated to move output from Qm toward Qs. Compulsory insurance addresses the separate problem of adverse selection and ensures those facing unexpected health shocks can afford treatment. [E3 - Examples] Singapore's healthcare system combines both mechanisms: MediShield Life provides basic compulsory health insurance (premiums SGD 150-800 annually depending on age), while means-tested subsidies reduce costs at public facilities. For lower-income households, Community Health Assist Scheme (CHAS) provides additional subsidies at private GP clinics. This multi-layered approach achieves near-universal coverage (99%+ of population covered by MediShield Life) without the fiscal burden of completely free provision. [E4 - Evaluate - Mini] This hybrid model preserves price signals that discourage frivolous consumption while ensuring affordability. The modest copayments (SGD 15-20 after subsidies) are low enough that financial barriers don't prevent necessary treatment but high enough that patients consider whether healthcare consumption is truly needed, reducing overconsumption relative to zero-price systems.
CONCLUSION (Summative Evaluation):
While free direct provision successfully eliminates financial barriers to healthcare access, it is not the best policy due to overconsumption and fiscal sustainability concerns. The comparison with Singapore's subsidy-plus-insurance model reveals that free provision sacrifices efficiency for equity, whereas targeted subsidies can achieve both objectives simultaneously. The critical insight is that healthcare market failure stems from positive externalities (underconsumption), not from inability to pay—these are distinct problems requiring distinct solutions. Free provision addresses both indiscriminately, creating overconsumption. Singapore's approach recognizes this distinction: subsidies address positive externalities by lowering costs toward socially optimal levels, while compulsory insurance (MediShield Life) addresses affordability through risk pooling without eliminating prices entirely.
The fiscal implications further support this conclusion. Free provision requires substantial ongoing tax revenue to fund all healthcare consumption, including marginal cases with low social value. Singapore's 2024 healthcare expenditure (approximately SGD 14 billion) represents about 8% of total government spending. If healthcare were entirely free, consumption would increase substantially—UK's NHS consumes approximately 10% of UK's GDP—potentially crowding out other government priorities like education and infrastructure. In contrast, the subsidy model allows market forces to allocate some resources while government targets spending on high-externality treatments (vaccinations, communicable disease treatment, preventive care). Therefore, subsidies combined with compulsory insurance represent the best policy approach for Singapore's context—balancing efficiency, equity, and fiscal sustainability.
Analysis of this exemplar:
Introduction: 5 sentences, ~150 words, follows SALAD perfectly
Body paragraphs: Each follows 4Es with topic sentences, includes Singapore examples
Mini-evaluations: Present after each main point
Conclusion: 2 paragraphs totaling ~200 words, provides summative evaluation going beyond mini-evaluations
Total length: Approximately 1.75 pages (appropriate for 15 marks)
AO4 demonstrated through: multiple perspectives (efficiency vs. equity), comparative assessment (UK vs. Singapore), recognition of trade-offs (access vs. overconsumption vs. fiscal cost)
Writing Conclusions: What Actually Needs to Be There
The three-part conclusion formula:
1. Summary of Key Points Briefly recap the main arguments made in body paragraphs (2-3 sentences maximum).
2. Restate Your Stand Return to your thesis from the introduction. Has your evaluation changed it? Reinforce your position.
3. Final Evaluation Provide overarching evaluative insight that synthesizes the analysis—this is where most of your 5 evaluation marks come from for students who don't do mini-evaluations.
How Long Should Conclusions Be?
10-mark questions: 4-5 lines maximum
15-mark questions: 1 paragraph (100-150 words)
25-mark questions: Up to 2 paragraphs (150-250 words) if including substantial evaluation
Can You Skip Conclusions?
Eugene Toh's honest answer:
"For 15-mark questions, never skip conclusions. Most students write their evaluation only in conclusions. If you skip it, you lose 5 marks immediately.
For 10-mark questions, I'm more relaxed. If you're running out of time and your body paragraphs are exceptionally strong, the conclusion is the one element I'd sacrifice. But you still lose marks from level-based marking—examiners expect conclusions, and omitting them suggests poor essay writing skills.
My publishers once made me go back and add conclusions to every essay in the 50 Model Essays books because I'd omitted them inconsistently. Even after 18 years of teaching, I sometimes forget conclusions because I focus so intensely on making body paragraphs strong. But students should aim for consistency—always include conclusions unless genuinely out of time in the final minutes of an exam."
Strategic priority if time-constrained in exam:
Complete all body paragraphs (main arguments + mini evaluations)
Write conclusion with at least stand restatement + 1-2 sentence evaluation
If absolutely necessary, skip conclusion for 10-mark questions only
But the better strategy? Time management practice so you never face this choice.
Master time management through ETG's weekly mock papers
Common Essay Writing Mistakes (And How to Fix Them)
Mistake 1: Brain Dump Without Structure
What it looks like: Student reads question, gets excited because they studied this topic, writes everything they know without filtering.
Why it fails: You're writing "tap water" (unfiltered knowledge) instead of "purified water" (filtered, relevant knowledge). The examiner wants answers to the specific question, not everything you know about the topic.
Fix: Use MDI to plan before writing. Filter your knowledge through the question's requirements.
Mistake 2: Answering the Question in Your Head
What it looks like: Student has practiced "demand price elastic vs. inelastic" extensively. Exam question asks about "perfectly price inelastic demand." Student writes about elastic vs. inelastic (what they practiced) instead of perfectly inelastic (what was asked).
Why it fails: You're answering a different question. Even if your content is accurate, it's irrelevant.
Fix: Read the question 3 times. Identify the specific concept being tested using MDI's "T" (Theory). Answer what's asked, not what you wish was asked.
Mistake 3: No Topic Sentences
What it looks like: Paragraphs that dive straight into explanation without signposting what point you're making.
Why it fails: Level-based marking means examiner experience matters. If they have to work hard to follow your argument, you get the bottom of your mark range.
Fix: Every paragraph starts with a topic sentence that summarizes your point in one sentence.
Mistake 4: Missing the 4th E (Evaluation)
What it looks like: Student explains the policy, elaborates with diagrams, provides examples—then moves to the next point without evaluating.
Why it fails: You're demonstrating AO1-AO3 (knowledge, application, analysis) but not AO4 (evaluation). This caps your grade at B.
Fix: After every policy or factor discussion, ask: "Under what conditions might this not work? What are the trade-offs? Who wins/loses? Short-run vs. long-run?" Then write 2-3 sentences addressing this.
Mistake 5: Vague Evaluation
What it looks like: "However, road pricing may not be effective in all circumstances."
Why it fails: This states that limitations exist but doesn't explain what they are or why they matter. It's evaluation theater—looks like evaluation, provides no insight.
Fix: Be specific. "Road pricing's effectiveness depends on demand elasticity. In areas with good public transport (elastic demand), drivers respond to ERP charges by switching to MRT. In industrial areas with poor public transport (inelastic demand), workers must drive regardless, making ERP ineffective at reducing traffic while imposing costs."
FAQ: Essay Writing and Evaluation
Q: How much evaluation is enough for full marks?
A: There's no magic number. Quality over quantity. One paragraph of sophisticated evaluation comparing multiple perspectives with Singapore policy evidence can score full marks. Four paragraphs of vague "there are limitations" statements won't. Aim for 2-3 substantial evaluative points (mini evaluations) plus a strong concluding evaluation.
Q: Can I write my evaluation only in the conclusion?
A: Yes, but it's risky. If you run out of time and don't finish your conclusion, you lose all 5 evaluation marks. Safer approach: mini-evaluations after each point (2-3 marks) + conclusion evaluation (2-3 marks). This way, incomplete conclusions still earn partial evaluation marks.
Q: Should every paragraph have a topic sentence?
A: Yes. This isn't just for Economics—it's fundamental essay writing. JC students should have internalized this from secondary school English, but many haven't. Topic sentences make your essay easier to follow, which affects level-based marking.
Q: How do I know if I'm writing too much?
A: Use the marks-to-pages ratio: 10 marks = 1-1.5 pages. If you're writing 3 pages for a 10-mark question, you're over-explaining. This usually means you're including too many points or explaining each point too exhaustively. Aim for breadth (covering multiple points) over depth (exhausting single points).
Q: What if I disagree with both sides of a "discuss" question?
A: That's fine—take a nuanced position. "Neither Policy A nor Policy B is best in isolation; the optimal approach combines both in a complementary policy mix addressing different aspects of the market failure." Then explain why Policy A addresses aspect X, Policy B addresses aspect Y, and together they're superior to either alone. Singapore often uses policy mixes (ERP + MRT expansion, carbon tax + green subsidies), so this approach is highly relevant.
Q: Can I use the same evaluation point for different questions?
A: Evaluation patterns are transferable, but application must be specific. The pattern "effectiveness depends on elasticity" applies to many policies. But you must explain why elasticity matters for this specific policy in this specific context. Generic evaluation gets generic marks.
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